BUGusa Inc. & WIRETIME Inc. Scenarios Essay Example for Free

BUGusa Inc. WIRETIME Inc. Scenarios Essay BUGusa Inc. is based in any state USA. The company provides critical software technology that allows eaves dropping, sound collection and more to law enforcement agencies throughout the states and federal government within the United States of America. BUGusa Inc. is looking to expand its services, expertise and software at an international level. In the course of their operations there have been some questionable behaviors concerning internal and external factors that are affecting the flow of operations and in some cases, this behavior may cause serious issues with the integrity of the software and its security. WIRETIME Inc. is a fairly new company competing against BUGusa Inc. That seeks to gain information on BUGusa Inc. by infiltrating its workforce and recruiting its best and brightest. Throughout this paper I will address some of those case scenarios and do my best to answer the questions set forth by the assignment. 1st Scenario: Has WIRETIME Inc. committed any torts? BUGusa Inc. vs. WIRETIME Inc. In this case scenario we find that WIRETIME Inc. has made an intentional negative public statement against BUGusa Inc, and more specifically against its product reliability. This behavior by WIRETIME Inc. can be seen as a gross move against BUGusa Inc. reputation, thus causing distrust in their products and services from the general public, state and federal agencies home and abroad. The behavior demonstrated by WIRETIME Inc. while not uncommon in the business world, can be seen as a defamation or libel tort, and this can give BUGusa Inc. leverage against WIRETIME Inc. in a lawsuit. BUGusa Inc. may sue for any marketing related costs it will incur to help its image rise to new and higher levels of trust within its current customers and future customers nationally and internationally; it wouldn’t  be a surprise if they also try to collect from possible damages it may have incurred from actual or potential loss of profit stemming from the ad circulated by WIRETIME Inc. and the distrust it may have already or potentially cause in the future against BUGusa Inc. WIRETIME Inc. could make the argument that its intention was not to harm BUGusa Inc. reputation because their statements were opinion based and not objective facts. In order to rebuttal the argument by WIRETIME Inc., and to build new trust, BUGusa Inc. could demonstrate that its products and services work well beyond the one-month capabilities that WIRETIME Inc. suggested on its supposedly opinion ad. By demonstrating that their software and services work beyond the one- month mark, they can surely h old their ground against their competitor and possibly create new business and stronger relationships with its consumers, and, at the same time win the lawsuit against WIRETIME Inc. 2nd Scenario: Has WIRETIME Inc. committed any torts? Janet, head of the RD department at BUGusa Inc. has two more years in her contract with her current company. She has been offered a much lucrative opportunity to work for the competition (WIRETIME Inc.) But there is a provision in her current contract that prohibits her to work for the competition for the following two years of her contract even if she was fired before that time expires. This is called the non – compete clause. Janet disclosed this information (non – compete clause) to the head of human resources at WIRETIME Inc. when he or she offered Janet employment with their company. You would think that this information would deter any further headhunting approach from WIRETIME Inc. because of the consequences Janet’s breach of duty to BUGusa Inc. may cause her if she accepts and the liability WIRETIME Inc. picks up by performing this intervening event against the non – compete clause BUGusa Inc. has on Janet’s contract. After Janet exposed the non – compete clause, the head of human resources at WIRETIME Inc. persisted and offered to increase her pay by 10% and added a $5,000.00 signing bonus to the deal. Janet had a duty to BUGusa Inc. and she committed a breach of contract by accepting the offer from the competing company by evidence of acceptance. There was an offer, acceptance, consideration,  consent, capacity, legal purpose, and writing. While it was illegal to work for the competitor, it was not illegal for her to resign from BUGusa Inc. WIRETIME, clearly intended to have Janet violate her legal agreement and contractual restriction with BUGusa Inc. and committed the tort of interference in a contractual relationship between Janet and BUGusa Inc. 3rd Scenario: WIRETIME Inc. (Steve Walter) Discuss BUGusa Inc. Liability for Walters’s actions. WIRETIME Inc. has made it its main mission to infiltrate its competitor and retrieve high value information from BUGusa Inc. by all means necessary. WIRETIME Inc. sends one of its employees, (STEVE) to apply for a position at BUGusa. Such is their luck that Steve, not only gets hired, but he secures a position within BUGusa Inc. research and development department. BUGusa Inc. failed to realize that Steve was an employee at WIRETIME Inc. thus placing the companies’ sensitive information at risk. While at BUGusa, Steve was picked up by an attentive security guard (Walter) who found out through the grapevine and investigation, that Steve was a spy amongst them working for the competitor. Walter decided to approach Steve and take him in to a soundproof room, and retrieve the truth from Steve through intimidating threats against his physical safety for six hours. Steve, of course fearing for his physical well being, disclosed his purpose in the company what information he has passed along and whom he truly worked for. While Walters’s frustration with Steve is understandable, his handling of the situation is totally unacceptable and carries some penalties with it. Walter created an atmosphere of stress, mentally and physically against an employee, regardless of his true intentions; BUGusa Inc. should of done its homework through background checks against Steve and probably saved itself the headache. Nevertheless, Walters’s behavior was thuggish and criminal thus creating the tort of assault. Walter could have held Steve and called the police, then followed through with charges against Steve and WIRETIME Inc. but his course of action may result in Steve goi ng after BUGusa Inc through vicarious liability. This liability holds BUGusa Inc. as responsible for Walters’s behavior and actions while performing his normal duties in the workplace. 4th Scenario: Parking lot of BUGusa Inc. Crime problem. What defense if any, may be available to BUGusa Inc.? As with all working environments, it is the legal and implied duty of any employer to provide a healthy and safe work environment for its employees, vendors and any other patrons visiting or performing work at any job site within the United States of America. Here we can see that this particular BUGusa Inc. branch that is located in Shady town USA, has been the victim of multiple attacks on its employees and its vendors and also fell pray to vandalism. This problematic issue is well known to the residents of the community where BUGusa has its building; this leads me to know that management at BUGusa Inc. must have also been aware of this problem and failed to address it properly. I do not see any available defense for BUGusa Inc. on the matter of the vendor being attacked and robbed while waiting to deliver goods at the facility mentioned above. BUGusa has a duty to its employees, vendors and any patron performing any job within its premises to provide adequate safety measures that w ill deter thief’s from braking in to cars and vandalizing company property, but most importantly from harming the people within its property at all times. Having a well lit parking lot means all lights are working properly and to their full capacity, and in this case, they had a few lights that were not operating at all. Also, well-lit areas are not enough security against a hostile environment that has in the past proven to be dangerous against employees and vendors. The company breached its duty by not upgrading its security measures after the first reported assaults against its employees, this negligence caused that the vendor become another victim of the crime wave affecting its private property. The injury to the employees and vendor are financial, mental and may well be physical if not yet. The tort that applies here is negligence on the part of BUGusa Inc. If they would have reevaluated their security stance against the rise in crime and violence on their property and its surrounding community, it could have avoided such negligence. 5th Scenario: Randy and Brian (BUGusa Inc.) What defense may be available to BUGusa Inc.? The following Scenario holds two parties as responsible for failing to perform their required duties as responsible citizens and employees. By both parties being negligent, they are both are potentially at fault; they violated personal and business duty, breached their duties to their safety and business safety, causing an accident and damages to private and business property not to mention the physical injuries if any, and obvious financial injuries to personal and business property. Both Randy and Brian were negligent in their actions, Brian, as an employee of BUGusa Inc. could have avoided the crash if he were following the speed limit or driving in accordance with road and area conditions. Randy failed to obey the yield sign and assumed the risk of being impacted by another vehicle. Here we can apply comparative or contributory negligence because they were both at fault, if BUGusa Inc. can prove that Randy had more to do with the cause of the accident then they may well win the c ase. 6th Scenario: Sally may have a successful case against BUGusa Inc. for what Tort? Just as in the actual case of General Motors, BUGusa Inc. failed to notify the consumers of the potential hazards of using their products. BUGusa tried to save money at the risk of consumer’s safety by taking shortcuts in the manufacturing and assembly process, knowing that such shortcuts may result in short circuit and in some cases harm to its product users they moved forward with its sale and fielding. Strict Product Liability Tort states that the manufacturer, distributor and seller are responsible for any harm and or injury caused by failure to inform of manufacturing defects or design defects. By designing the product without the necessary insulation, Sally was exposed to a short and suffered injuries. BUGusa Inc. is clearly in hot water and can be liable for all harm and injuries stemming from this negligent act. References Cornell University. (2014). Tort. Retrieved from http://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/tort Expert Law. (2014). Negligence / Personal Injury. Retrieved from http://www.expertlaw.com/library/personal_injury/negligence.html Hill, M. (2011). The Legal Environment of Business. A Managerial Approach: Theory to Practice. Phoenix, AZ: Copyright  © McGraw-Hill Company.

Operational Requirements And Service Conditions Of Piston Engineering Essay

Operational Requirements And Service Conditions Of Piston Engineering Essay ABSTRACT There is an extent in changing the trend of the material by its properties and its characteristic. The majority of the materials completely depend on the application of the material in the component and its versatility. The components by material vary from each other by its properties. The materials have the tendency to change its manufacturing process by its character. A component can be manufactured by using various materials depending according to the application and its life. In this paper we discussed about the manufacturing process of the components like piston, connecting rod and the crank shaft. The alternative methodologies and usage of alternative materials are also explained by using CES chart with its advantages. INTRODUCTION Selecting the appropriate material is an integral part of the successful implementation of an engineers design. A design engineers ability to objectively quantify the combined marketing, technical and manufacturing requirements as they apply to the material selection is critical to the actual as well as the perceived success of the product. This paper contains a deep knowledge about the selection of the material and its manufacturing procedure with justification. CHAPTER 1 GENERAL COMPONENT DETAILS 1.1 PISTON The piston is the most essential component of the engine which actually transfer the energy output from the combustion chamber to the crankshaft through connecting rod. This is a pressure-tight cylindrical plunger which is subjected to the expanding gas pressure. Basically, piston structural components are head, skirt, gudgeon pin, grooves and lands. 1.1.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND SERVICE CONDITIONS OF PISTON Hence in order to transmit this high power output the piston must be designed lightly and must be robust. The piston must be of higher strength material that can with stand the high pressure that is been generated due to the burning of air-fuel mixture within the cylinder. Piston must be fitted properly to control the expansion due to temperature, without which the piston will fit loosely when in cold and they bind themselves when it gets warmed. 1.1.2 FUNCTIONS OF PISTON Transmit energy from combustion unit to piston pin, Serve as a carrier for the piston ring which seals the compression in the cylinder, Act as a guide for upper end of the connecting rod, Withstand high temperature expansion Despite the heat energy to the coolant. piston.gif Fig(1) Piston Assembly Conditions of piston at normally high speed, Piston moves from the top to bottom of the cylinder and vice versa with a acceleration of speed of around 50mph at midpoint and decelerates. The piston is subjected to pressure of about 6.8MPA. The piston is subjected to temperature of about 315 °C.[1] 1.1.3 DESIRABLE MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS The Piston materials must meet the following conditions, [2] Low thermal expansions for arresting the hot gases. High thermal conductivity for releasing heat from piston head. High strength to mass ratio (light weight) for transmitting high power output. High fatigue strength for increasing the material strength. Good resistance to surface abrasion. To reduce skirt and ring groove wear. 1.2 CONNECTING ROD Connecting rod is a part of the engine which connects the piston to the crankshaft. This connecting rod converts the linear motion of the piston to rotating motion to the crankshaft. 1.2.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND SERVICE CONDITIONS [] Connecting rods should be made as long as possible to reduce the oblique angle by the cylinder axis. Both tensile and compressive stresses are produced due to piston reciprocating-inertia loads. In order to evade scuffing proper lubrication is needed. Lubrication of the small end by a hole drilled along the shank should be so arranged that the hole intersects the big end bore circumferentially. To prevent buckling the rod shank is made in an H section, i.e., with a central web and two end flanges. Intense heat is generated at high rotational speed, so large bearing area is required to make the rod wear well. They should be checked for the correct length, weight distribution, straightness and freedom from twist. 1.2.2 FUNCTIONS OF CONNECTING ROD As the word is self explanatory, the connecting rod connects the piston and the crankshaft. The connecting rod continuously transmits energy from the combustion chamber to the crank shaft. It actually converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to the rotary motion of the crankshaft. These dynamic motions of the connecting rod makes it as light as possible whilst having a rigid section. 14900_19847.jpg 1.2.3 DESIRABLES MATERIAL CONDITIONS Must be strong to remain rigid under loading and light enough to reduce the inertia forces. Material must have good elastic modulus. It must have high fatigue strength in order to avoid failure due to high cycle fatigue. Heat capacity of the connecting rod must be high. Must withstand buckling stress due to large compressive loads. Must be of low density to avoid bearing failure. 1.3 CRANKSHAFT Crankshaft is the central link-up for the power produced by each cylinder in the engine. This crankshaft is one of the heavier part of the engine which is to be made strong to withstand the load from the con-rod. 1.3.1 OPERATIONAL REQUIREMENTS AND SERVICE CONDITIONS Fillet areas locations are to be verified since both torsional and bending loads are experienced during its service life. Counterbalancing of weight is to be considered in order to counteract the centrifugal forces created by crankpin. The projected areas of the big-end and main-end journals must be adequate to withstand maximum cylinder pressure. After grounding should have a surface finish of 0.5 µm to minimize bearing wear. Crankshaft must have the capacity to absorb the thrust loads from clutches or torque converter. 1.3.2 FUNCTIONS It transmits power from combustion chamber to the flywheel through piston, piston rings and connecting rod. It harness and phase the individual cylinders power impulses transmitted through the mechanism of the connecting rod which converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotary motion at crankshaft. It changes the linear displacement due to sudden shock caused by the combustion chamber into smooth rotary motion which is the input to many devices. Crankshaft rotates in the cylinder in the cylinder block of the main bearing which supports the crankshaft which reduces the excessive wear. http://www.motorera.com/dictionary/pics/c/crankshaft.gif 1.3.3 DESIRABLES MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS Material nominal stress must not exceed 20% of tensile strength in bending and 15% in torsion. Must have the capacity to withstand large force from gas combustion. Must have high heat withstanding capacity. Must have low thermal expansion. Must have high adequate strength, toughness, hardness, and high fatigue strength. CHAPTER 2-MATERIAL SELECTION 2.1 MATERIAL SELECTION FOR PISTON[hh] Material selection process is an integral part of the overall product development process and must be considered in the early phases of the product definition. The material chosen for manufacturing the product is based on the following consideration, Mass consideration Strength and wear consideration Heat-conduction consideration Expansion consideration Based on the above considerations the aluminium alloys satisfies all the factors comparing to cast iron and steel. Mass consideration: Since the pistons reciprocating force is high at high speed, it is necessary to turn to light material instead of cast iron and steel. It has a relative density of 2.6 when compared with 7.8 for cast iron. Strength and wear consideration: Since pure aluminium has low tensile strength of 92 to124 N/mm2 and fall of to 31N/mm2 at 300 °C, it is always alloyed with copper or silicon for piston materials which improves the strength to mass ratio. At high level of silicon, the alloy exhibits excellent surface hardness, wear resistance properties and excellent dimensional stability. Heat-conduction consideration: The better heat dissipation of aluminium-alloy pistons compared to cast-iron pistons greatly reduces the maximum piston-crown operating temperature of 250C 300C for allou pistons and 400 to 500C for cast iron. Expansion Consideration: The thermal expansion is less for Al-Si alloy which has a thermal expansin of 0.000 021 and 0.000 017 per  °C for 12% Si alloy and 22% Si alloy. Fig() CES chart 2.1.1 SURFACE CONSIDERATON: Due to high speed reciprocation of the piston there may be so many losses or issues that must be considered. In that the frictional losses in piston assembly are majorly due to generation of heat. Subsequent raise in temperature can have this effect in the operation. In order to overcome this problem, proper material with good thermal conductivity is chosen. 2.2 MATERIAL SELECTON FOR CON-ROD The connecting rods are crucial and highly stressed component of the automotive engine subjected to alternative tensile and compressive stresses. Hence the material must be chosen based on the following conditions; Good elastic modulus, High fatigue strength, Low density to avoid bearing failure and High heat capacity. Based on the following conditions microalloyed steel is chosen which meets all the requirements mentioned above. This steel has a hardness level of 20-30 HRC. Small microalloying additions of vanadium and niobium are used to increase the strength of carbon steel plates. 1.1%Mn-0.5%Cr is the best combination to obtain thee high fatigue strength. Lowering the carbon content down to 0.33% and increasing the vanadium content to control the hardness gives toughness which improves the fatigue strength of free machining grades with S and Pb. The finally obtained chemical composition is 0.33%C-1.05%Mn-0.5%Cr-0.12%V-.055%S-0.20%Pb-Ca which has fatigue strength of 26% higher than a conventional microalloyed forging steel. As for connecting rod, application of light metal like titanium alloys and aluminium alloys are been tested, due to high cost in light metal the connecting rod are made of microalloyed steel. This structure contains ferrictic-pearlitic-bainit. Fig() CES chart 2.2.1 SURFACE CONSIDERATION The connecting rod is one of the highly stress concentrated part of the automotive engine. It is known that in the four cycle engines the connecting-rod small end is particularly stressed when the con-rod is at top dead centre at the beginning of the induction stroke, since the small end is ovalized by the tensile inertial forces exerted by the mass of the piston assembly. During both the stroke condition (expansion and compression) gudgeon pin pushes the small end along the lower end of the arc, by which the compression load directly acts on the con-rod without considerably stressing the eye. The eye is therefore subjected to repeated stresses, whereas the con-rod shank stress are reversed.(10) 2.3 MATERIAL SELECTION FOR CRANKSHAFT (hh) Crankshaft are from materials which can be readily shaped, machined and heat-treated and which have desirable mechanical properties such as adequate strength, toughness, hardness and high fatigue strength and of course , low cost. The highest quality steels are usually specified for satisfying the constraints given. Metals with optimum combination of bending and the stiffness are identified by creating a charts in CES by using performance indices in axes. From the figure it is clear that the low carbon steel, high carbon steel, low alloy steel and medium carbon steel are satisfying the given constraints. Low alloy steel with chromium-molybdenum is used for crankshaft. This forging steel is suitable for medium to heavy-duty petrol and diesel-engine crankshafts. It presents no difficulty in hot working and afterwards can be easily machined to size. The alloying composition is 0.4% carbon, 1.2% chromium and 0.3% molybdenum. 2.3.1 SURFACE CONSIDERATIONS Since crankshaft is the most highly strained part of the engine with high load acting on it the following factors must be considered. Pitting failure can occur in the crank-pin Due to lack of surface integrity lack of control over stress and temperature. CHAPTER 3 MANUFACTURING PROCESS 3.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR PISTON[SS] Based on the material selected as aluminium alloys for piston, the manufacturing process is carried-out through casting because of its capability to produce near-net shaped parts at the required production rate. Hence the process selected for this component is the Gravity die casting. 3.1.1 GRAVITY DIE CASTING The pistons are produced from high-silicon alloys, such as 413.0 aluminium alloy. This alloy has high fluidity and can create high-definition surfaces through permanent mould casting; it also has high resistance to corrosion, good weldability, and low specific gravity. The universal acceptance of aluminium pistons for internal combustion engine applications is due to mainly to their light weight and high thermal conductivity.[ss] This type of casting is suitable for high volume production. The main advantages are the dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Castings ranging from few grams to 100kgs of aluminium alloy could be casted. This process could achieve higher mechanical properties than other casting by heat treatment. Since silicon has got good properties like, low shrinkage and imparting high fluidity which results in good casting. The maximum amount of silicon in cast alloy are in range of 22%-24%.(11) Manufacturing route: [ss] The h13 tool-steel mould is preheated to 200 °C to 450 °C, depending on the cast alloy and part size. Initially, the preheat is achieved with a hand-held torch, the mould reaches a steady-state temperature. Molten aluminium is heated to between 100 °C-200 °C above its liquidus temperature as shown below. Once the molten shot is in place the piston drives the mould in its place. Because of high thermal conductivity of the mould material, heat extraction from the molten metal is rapid and the metal solidifies in small channels before filling the mould completely. [9] 3.1.2 MICROSTRUCTURAL CHANGES Silicon has a diamond crystal structure and is consequently very brittle. These silicon structure damage the mechanical properties and nucleates on aluminium phosphide particles that is present in the melt as impurities. Further addition of sodium to the melt getters the phosphorous, which thereby increases the difficulty of sodium nucleation. Solidification is suppressed to lower temperature where the nucleation rate is large. This leads to remarkable refinement of microstructure. [9] Aluminium Silicon [9] From the figure above the dark feature is a shrinkage pore caused by a casting defect. This figure shows the coarse silicon plates in an aluminium matrix. 3.2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Microalloyed connecting-rod is manufactured by a simplified thermomechanical treatment like controlled cooling following hot forging. Through these processes desired properties could be obtained without quenching and tempering treatments. Hence powder forging was selected which would conveniently satisfy the manufacturing process for the selected material and component. 3.2.1 POWDER FORGING Powder forging rods are manufactured by combining metal powders into a pre-form that is sintered and reheated to forging temperature. Then it is completely forged to its final shape and machined to its final dimensions. This mixed powder is compacted at room temperature and high pressure upto to 200 to 400MPa. At the end of the process the powdered material acquires a density of 70 to 85%. This process has resulted in fully dense shape part which makes it suitable for high performance applications where high durability and strength are required. The detailed manufacturing route of this PF process is shown below: [12] The advantages of using PF process are, Good dimensional accuracy Minimum scattering of weight Energy saving [12] 3.2.2 MICROSTRUCTURE [13] [13pdf] From the photograph of the microstructure of the connecting-rod material it is clear that the component contains pearlite and ferrite materials in composition. The above picture clearly indicates that in the powder metal connecting rods oxides are removed from the material surface by shot peening but the oxides are entrapped and remain below the surface causing the crack to originate below the surface . 3.3 MANUFACTURING PROCESS 3.3.1 FORGING [ss] The material selected for the crankshaft is forged steel which has a desirable mechanical properties such as adequate strength, toughness, hardness, and high fatigue strength. Hence the suitable manufacturing process for this steel is forging. Forging is a basic process in which the work-piece is shaped by compressive forces applied through various dies and tooling. For this forging process the dimensional tolerance range from  ±0.5 to  ±1% of the forging dimensions. At higher temperatures of about 700 °C dynamic forging recrystallisation occurs which increases the stress and strain deformation of the metal to make it hard. Manufacturing route: Prepare a slug or billet Heat the work-piece in the suitable furnace For hot forging, preheat and lubricate the dies Forge the billet in appropriate dies and in the proper sequence Clean the forging and check its dimensions Perform additional operations such as heat treatments and straightening Inspect for defects In the hot forging process to form a metal billet two or more dies are brought together to each other at a suitable room temperature in a shape of the die impression. This process follows two basic requirements, The strength of the material must be low so that the die pressure can be kept within the limits. The material should be capable of deforming without failure and should allow required amount of deformation. The flow of metal and die filling are mainly determined by (i) flow stress and cooling ability (ii) friction and cooling effects at the material interface. In this process, definite amount of heat is received by all the parts after machining in heat treatment process. This is mainly carried-out to improve fatigue and wear properties. High quality parts with moderate cost can be made by this process. Thus this process offers high strength to weight ratio, toughness and resistance to impact and fatigue to the material which is considered in the performance of the crank shaft. [14] 3.3.2 MICROSTRUCTURE Heating above recrystallisation temperature causes recrystallisation that removes the microstructure deformed and generated recrystallised grains. After eutectoid-carburizing martensite transformation takes place and a black portion near the surface is formed consisting of fine grains of ferrite and carbide. On quenching from the austentite (ÃŽ ³) phase martensite is formed. This transformation is a diffusion-less shear transformation . Martensite is too brittle in plain carbon steel for practical applications and is subsequently tempered to restore some toughness. CHAPTER 4 ALTERNATE MATERIAL 4.1 ALTERNATE MATERIAL FOR PISTON[hh] Cast iron refers to the family of ferrous alloys composed of iron, carbon ranging from 2.11% to about 4.5% and silicon of about 3.5%. They are classified by their structure ferritic, pearlitic, quenched and tempered or austempered. The equilibrium phase diagram relevant to cast iron is shown below where right boundary is 100%C. The eutectic temperature is 1154 °C and thus cast irons are completely liquid at temperatures lower than those required for liquid steels. One of the major disadvantage of the aluminium as the base metal of the piston is that it has high co-efficient of linear expansion in the range of 0.0000221per °C, compared with 0.0000117per °C of cast iron. Aluminium has twice the expansion rate of cast iron. Cementite is metastable (not completely stable) which has a tremendously low decomposition rate. However it can be made decomposed into alpha-ferrite and graphite. The graphitization can be controlled, promoted and accelerated by adding silicon, controlling the rate of cooling and modifying the composition.[ss] [15] 1.4.1 LIMITATIONS Relative density is high of about 7.8 When in tension, the presence of graphite acts as a stress riser weakens the material. Strength properties of the cast iron are significantly affected by the shape and size of graphite. Higher material and manufacturing cost. The major disadvantage is the shrinkage. 1.4.2 POTENTIAL BENEFITS Presence of graphite in cast iron improves wear-resistance as it acts as a lubricant. High carbon content-degradation of ductility and fracture toughness. Good corrosion-resistance. Easy machinability Wide range of composition and microstructures-easy weldability. 4.2 ALTERNATE MATERIAL FOR CON-ROD The alternate material chosen for connecting rod is aluminium alloyed material as it is light in weight and provides long service life to the part. The aluminium alloys are high strength-to-weight ratio, resistance to corrosion by many chemicals, high conductivity and ease of formability. The material composition of aluminium is 7.6 to 8.4% Zn,1.8-2.3%Mg, 2-2.6%Cu, 0.08-0.25%Zr, 0.10%Si, 0.15%Fe, 0.05%Mn, 0.04%Cr and 0.06%Ti. When compared to othe alloys it convinces the constrains like low thermal expansion, wear-resistant, high fatigue strength and buckling. Majorly this material is chosen based on the following consideration: Mass consideration Strength and wear consideration Expansion consideration Heat-conduction consideration http://www.streetperformance.com/ART/PRODUCTS/100687/14012-8.jpg[19] 2.4.1 LIMITATIONS It is more expensive than cast iron. Low dimensional accuracy and poor surface finish. Solidification is very slow. Occurrence of fracture in short transverse direction. Expansion rate is high when compared to cast iron with oure aluminium. 2.4.2 POTENTIAL BENEFITS Aluminium alloys can be easily machined and welded and formed. High dimensional accuracy with long service life. High yield strength in both tensile and compression. Aluminium is much better conductor of heat than cast iron. Aluminium alloys provide improved resistance to abrasion and produce strength over temperature range. Improves the performances of the piston and thus the engine. 4.3 ALTERNATE MATERIAL FOR CRANKSHAFT As the crankshaft is the heavier moving part in the automotive engine, the material selected for this part has to be strong and light. Titanium alloys having high strength with reduced weight is used for crankshaft until and unless cost is not considered, as this material is very expensive. http://amt-advanced-materials-technology.com/s/cc_images/cache_867254901.jpg[17] 4.3.1 POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF TITANIUM ALLOYS Titanium has high melting point of about1678 °C which specifies strong creep and strength above wide temperature range. The density is about 55% of steel with comparable strength. Ti alloys exists in two allotropic forms ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ² Presence of thin oxide surface film-resistance over atmospher and sea environments including chlorine and organic chemicals. Reacts rapidly with oxygen, nitrogen and constituents in cutting tools at high temperature. 4.3.2 LIMITATIONS Embrittlement occurs during fabrication because of susceptibility of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Forging with titanium alloys is expensive but it increases the strength of the material. Ti alloys has a tendency to madden when tightening with connecting rod using bolt. Titanium is more difficult to machine due its reactive nature. Niobium Titanium[16] CHAPTER 5 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS 5.1 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR PISTON 5.1.1 SAND CASTING Sand casting is a one of the most feasible manufacturing process where the unit production is comparatively less. In this process a mixture of sand and clay is compacted around the pattern in which the pattern retains the shape of the original component to be produced. Then the pattern is removed in order have the cavity in the shape of the pattern. Generally low cost wooden patterns with gateways and runner are used. The molten metal is poured into the gateway by which it runs through the runner and fills the cavity and forms the exact shape of the cavity. Actually this whole system is housed in a box called flask. After which the molten metal allowed to solidify by cooling it. As the molten metal is solidified the sand pattern is broken and final work is done to obtain the finished component. The figure below shows the manufacturing process of the sand casting in detail. http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file.php/1689/T173_2_020i.jpg Fig(8.1) Sand Casting Process [18] 5.1.2ADVANTAGES Low tooling and equipment cost Component with any complicated shape can be produced Relatively cheap process Possibly components can be produced in large quantity. 5.1.3 DISADVANTAGES High tolerance ratio is required Labour cost is high. 5.2 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR CON-ROD 5.2.1 SQUEEZE DIE CASTING Squeeze die casting or liquid metal casting involves the process of solidification of molten metal under high pressure. The machinery includes a die, punch and ejector-pin. Under the pressure applied by the punch keeps the entrapped gases in solution and the rapid heat transfer takes place at the die-metal contact which results in fine microstructure with good mechanical properties.[ss] Elimination of shrinkage and gas porosity happens because of precise metal metering, quiescent die filling and high pressure. 5.2.2 ADVANTAGES Precise dimension, Excellent surface finish, Fully shaped component is obtained Complex part can be made to near-shape. 5.2.3 DISADVANTAGES High initial cost Limitation of high fluidity metals[20] 5.3 ALTERNATE MANUFACTURING PROCESS FOR CRANKSHAFT 5.3.1 FORGING In forging operations the metal is squeezed to shape by die in which the metal is subjected to large plastic deformation. These metals are placed in-between closed dies under high temperature and pressure which results in succession of the final shape. http://www.forcast.ca/images/00436_faq1.gif[21] Forgings generally are subjected to additional finishing operations, such as heat treating to modify properties and machining to obtain accurate final dimensions and surface finish. 5.3.2 ADVANTAGES Good utilizations of materials Good dimensional accuracy High production rate Good reproducibility Low die costs 5.3.3 DISADVANTAGES Initial cost is high Not economical for small quantities Machining often necessaries

Essay on Camus’ The Stranger (The Outsider): The Gentle Meursault :: Camus Stranger Essays

The Gentle Meursault of Camus’s The Stranger (The Outsider) In Albert Camus’s The Stranger, Meursault, the protagonist, could be seen as immoral if he were judged on the basis of his actions alone. However, through Camus’s use of a first person narrative, we begin to understand Meursault as not an immoral man, but simply an indifferent one. Meursault is a symbol of the universe, and so in understanding him we understand that the universe is also not evil, but instead a place of gentle indifference. At first glance, Meursault could be seen as an evil man. He shows no grief at his mother’s funeral, worrying more about the heat. His first reaction to his mother’s death is not sadness, it is a matter-of-fact, unemotional acceptance of the situation. â€Å"Maman died today. Or yesterday maybe, I don’t know.† Later on in the story, Meursault kills an Arab on the beach, and his only concern is that he has ruined the calm, pleasant day he was having. When he is in jail, the magistrate comes in an attempt to save Meursault’s soul, but instead of cooperating, Meursault simply confounds the magistrate by refusing to believe in God. Even at his trial, Meursault doesn’t show any remorse for having killed the Arab. Based on this evidence alone, how can we not see Meursault as evil? In the novel, we are given a more complete view of Meursault. The story is told from his point-of-view, which allows us to understand the situation as Meursault perceives it. Looking at the situation in this light, we can see Meursault as not evil, but simply indifferent and detached from life. He doesn’t attempt to get wrapped up in emotion or relationships, he just takes things as they come, doing whatever is easiest for him. He becomes friends with Raymond and agrees to marry Marie simply because he doesn’t have a very good reason not to. Seeing the story from Meursault’s viewpoint, we understand that even killing the Arab wasn’t an act of malice or evil intent. As Meursault puts it, â€Å"My nature is such that my physical needs often get in the way of my feelings.† With this in context, things begin to make more sense. Meursault’s seemingly cryptic statement that he murdered the Arab â€Å"because of the sun† can be taken as truth . Meursault does things that society judges as wrong not because he is evil or wants to appear immoral, but because the sun and heat, symbols for Meursault’s emotional state, cause him to become uncomfortable and act â€Å"inappropriately.

Phosphates :: essays research papers

Phosphates Phosphates may be created by substituting some or all of the hydrogen of a phosphoric acid by metals. Depending on the number of hydrogen atoms that are replaced, the resulting compound is described as a primary, secondary or tertiary phosphate. Primary and secondary phosphates contain hydrogen and are acid salts. Secondary and tertiary phosphates, with the exception of those of sodium, potassium and ammonium are insoluble in water. Tertiary sodium phosphate is valuable as a detergent and water softener. The primary phosphates tend to be more soluble. Phosphates, which are an important component to metabolism in both plants and animals, help in the first step in oxidation of glucose in the body. Primary calcium phosphate is an ingredient of plant fertilizer. Phosphates have caused increasing attention recently. The focus is on the environmentally harmful effects in household detergents. Wastewater, from laundering agents, contains phosphates, which are said to be a water pollutant. Most laundry detergents contain approximately 35% to 75% sodium triphosphate (Na5P3O10), which serves two purposes. Providing an alkaline solution (pH 9.0 to 10.5) is necessary for effective cleansing and also to tie up calcium and magnesium ions found in natural waters and prevent them from interfering with the cleansing role of the detergent. Eutrophication is the progressive over-fertilization of water, in which festering masses of algae's blooms, choking rivers and lakes. Phosphorus compounds act as a fertilizer for all plant life, whether free-floating algae or more substantial rooted weeds, and are implicated in eutrophication. Many countries control phosphate levels, whereas Switzerland has banned the use of phosphates. The marine environment is both fragile and more resistant than the terrestrial ecosystem. It is fragile for the reasons that nutrients are generally present in very low concentrations, permanently consumed by living organisms and pollutants diffuse rapidly. Lakes and rivers are extremely complex ecosystems. Nutrients are taken up by both algae and rooted weeds. The weeds act as a shelter for fish larvae and zooplankton, both of which eat algae and are, in turn, eaten by larger fish. Scientists have concluded that unpolluted lakes can absorb surprisingly large amounts of phosphates without uncertainty. When a fertilizer, such as a phosphate, is added more algae will grow, and consequently will the populations of zooplankton and fish. Difficulties only arise when the lake is already impure. Zooplankton are sensitive to their environment and many substances are toxic to them. If any of these substances, including phosphates, are present the zooplankton population cannot increase. Adding phosphates to this polluted system will case algae growth. The floating masses cut off the light supply. Weeds die and decompose using up dissolved oxygen, and causing sulfurous smells

Trust Preferred Securities :: Stocks Economics TPS Essays

Trust Preferred Securities Trust Preferred Securities are cumulative preferred stock issued by a business trust that is wholly owned by a bank holding company (BHC) to increase the company’s capital. When originally created in 1993, this security could be classified as debt or equity, as needed, by the issuing company. However, in 2003, the Financial Accounting Standards Board issued Statement No. 150 to standardize classification of Trust Preferred Securities (TPS). A Trust Subsidiary would issue mandatorily redeemable, non-voting preferred stock to 3rd party investors. The Trust subsidiary would then â€Å"loan† the proceeds from the sale of the stock to the Parent BHC with the debt having the same terms as the TPS. Finally, when the Parent BHC made â€Å"interest payments† on the debt to the Trust Subsidiary, the latter used the â€Å"interest income† to make the dividend payments on the securities. For tax purposes, the Parent BHC would classify the proceeds from the issuance of the stock as debt. Remember that the proceeds of the stock issuance had been passed on to the Parent BHC as a â€Å"loan.† This allowed the Parent BHC to take an â€Å"interest† expense tax deduction on the â€Å"interest† paid to the trust. The trust, however, would not get taxed on the â€Å"interest† income it received from the parent company because the trust had been established as a pass-through entity. That means the â€Å"interest† income passed through the trust untaxed and, instead, would get taxed at the security holders’ level. At the same time, for financial reporting purposes, the Parent BHC would classify the same proceeds from the sale of the TPS as capital. The problem with treating the securities as capital in financial reports was that, because the securities were mandatorily redeemable, the company had an unconditional obligation to, at some point, pay out the principal and quarterly dividends at a specified rate. Thus, classifying what met all the characteristics of debt as capital made the company’s financial statements extremely misleading.

Sexuality of Men and Women: A Comparison

The perceived views of men s and women s sexuality have been the subject of great speculation and conflict. Although great strides have been made over the years in the sexual â€Å"revolution†, the basic views of male and female sexuality have remained the same. Throughout history the ideas of proper sexuality for men and women have changed little. Men have always been portrayed as the aggressive pursuer of a woman’s sexual favors. Women, in turn, have been required by society to diligently preserve their honor outside of the marital bed. Andrew Marvell’s â€Å"To His Coy Mistress† offers a good example of the game-like behavior that has become almost expected of a man and woman in society. The narrator beseeches his Lady to â€Å"sport us while we may like amorous birds of prey†. The Lady on the other hand, flirts casually and spurns the narrator’s advances. Women are praised highly for their virtue and honor in keeping their virginity for the institution of marriage. Even though it is perfectly acceptable for a man to attempt for and even acquire the sexual favors of a woman it is a social sin and in some areas a crime for a woman to succumb to her sexual desires outside of marriage. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†, Hester Prynne is ostracized by her community for having an extra-marital affair. Her punishment condemns her for her adultery and assures her a lifetime of humiliation. Many societies have gone through great lengths over the centuries to ensure fidelity or virginity in women. In the Middle Ages, women were often forced to wear chastity belts to ensure their virtue was kept intact while men were away at war or some other manly undertaking. In some countries, women are forced to cover every inch of their bodies in an effort to avoid the advances of other men. The narrator in Amy Lowells Patterns speaks of her passion that wars against the stiff brocade of her dress, the very heavy and unrevealing style of the era in which the poem is set. She laments the death of her betrothed as they were to be wed in a month and, as she felt bound by the dress, he was to have freed her from it. This poem also illustrates how the narrator, as many women in the past, did not consider it proper to succumb to her passions before marriage. Men on the other hand have often been revered for their sexual prowess. Kings often kept concubines, or mistresses. In some countries, it is acceptable for a man to have many wives. Sexual conquest has become almost a gauge by which manhood is tested. Men are often bombarded by peer pressure to become sexually active at an early age. Seen as a rite of passage by many men, they begin their pursuit of women before they are even capable of reproduction. In Stevie Smith s The Frog Prince, the narrator speaks of his being happy the way he is but he feels that it is required of him to have a girl. Changing times have allowed people to become a little more open in expressing their sexuality. However, more often than not, most men and women tend to conform themselves to expectations that remain the same even in today s society.

Dolphins: Communicators of the Sea

Dolphins are common creatures at rivers and seas. The majority of small toothed whales are dolphins. Dolphins are large sea animals making it part of the suborder Odontoceti, family Delphinidae. Whales and porpoises generally belong to the Cetaceans belonging to family Plantanistidae and Delphinidae, respectively. Often, people used dolphins and porpoises interchangeably denoting same species but porpoises in particular and dolphins are different species. Porpoises belong to family Phocaenidae; it has a rounded snout and chisel-liked teeth.While dolphins are under family Plantanistidae and Delphinidae, instead of a rounded snout, dolphins have beak like snout and sharp, conical teeth. Dolphins are outgoing creatures; often they are mingling in a group with two to fifteen animal members or more. Most of their communities are dominated by females, its offspring, sisters and other females. Sub adult male dolphins will leave these female-dominated communities to start a group of â€Å"b achelor† dolphins; if these dolphins become sexually mature, they can move in the female groups for copulation. These mammals are very playful.They are often spotted riding the bow wave or stern wake of boats and â€Å"surfing† on waves. Chasing and tossing things to one another is one of their favorite plays. If seen jumping or breaching, it indicates enthusiasm for these creatures. Play is important for dolphins for learning and as well as to practice their skills necessary for their life’s survival (Geocities. com, 2006). The current paper focuses on these creatures’ characteristics, particularly their capability to engage in echolocation. Scope The paper begins with an introduction about the dolphin, and their general characteristics as sea creatures.This is followed by a discussion of their general physiology, including their skin, fin, swimming speed, breathing, and body temperature. The dolphin family is then discussed, with its 33 species – with 5 river species and 6 porpoise species. Of these, the most popular is said to be the bottlenose dolphin which are found in theme parks and are featured in television programs. The next focus would be on the dolphin’s brainpower, specifically in their capacity to make tunes among themselves with a wide range of sounds. Their distinctive communication patterns are likewise expounded on.The paper concludes with a call for concern and protection from humans, who are supposed to be stewards of these creatures. Overview With regards to its general physiology, dolphins have rubbery skin. They are classified as mammals and have the capacity of maintaining high body temperature. They can hold their breath for several minutes making it easy for them to have rapid and deep dives of more then 300 m (1,000 ft). To date, there are more than 33 different species of dolphins, over 5 different species of river dolphins and more than 6 different species of porpoises.Though there are many species of dolphins, the most popular are bottlenose dolphins which are frequently featured in television and theme parks. Perhaps their greatest strength is their ability to communicate with one another or to echolocate. This is the counterpart of language among humans. Dolphins create whistles and sounds signifying an action for which another dolphin can understand, it can signal danger for their kind hence they should be alert or a prey is near at hand thus, everybody must prepare; depending on the whistle produced.They can make signature whistles that carry distinct information. Considering the cognitive abilities of bottlenose dolphins, their vocal learning and copying skills, and their fission–fusion social structure, their communication process can be further studied to provide evidences about their â€Å"dolphin messages and echoes. † Humans have the responsibility of taking care of these creatures, acting as their stewards to prevent them from extinction. Gene ral Physiology of a Dolphin A dolphin’s body is smooth having a rubbery-feel of its hairless skin when touched.The skeletal remnants of five digits in the front appendage form the flippers mainly acting as its balancer during its swim. The rear appendages are almost absent because the small pelvic bones are deep-rooted in the connective tissue at the base of the tail (Dolphin Lovers. com, 2006). The subcutaneous dermal tissue of the dolphin forms its immovable dorsal fin; its tail fin is also dermal in its origin. Its movement is similar with the whales wherein the major force comes from its vertical oscillations of the tail and flukes making it capable to swim at a speed of 37-40 km/h, and in some events, its swimming speed reaches up to 48 km/h.Dolphins seem restless in traveling the rivers but in reality, it rides the bow wave by making use of the ship’s trust (Stoops, 1996) Dolphins are mammals, hence breathing and maintaining high body temperature is vital. Dolphi ns maintain its internal temperature at 36. 5 deg to 37. 2 deg C (97. 9 deg to 99 deg F), with its thick layer of dense fat (blubber) under the skin. At the top of its head, a single nostril or blowhole is placed where it acts as its lungs. Dolphins breathe air at the surface every two minutes consisting of brief unpredictable exhalation followed by a longer inhalation.Dolphins are capable to hold their breath for several minutes making it easy for them to have rapid and deep dives of more then 300 m (1,000 ft) (Dolphin Lovers. com, 2006). Dolphin’s Brainpower Greco and Gini (2005) say that dolphins are capable of making tunes among themselves with a wide range of sounds. Dolphins show evidence that their intelligence is greater than that of dogs. Dolphins learn easily and execute complicated tasks, continuous communications with one another, and their ability to mimic the sounds of human language if they are given ample time to be trained.Toothed whales have exceptionally la rge brains including the famously bright dolphins that have capabilities previously only attributed to humans and apes. Cetaceans (dolphins, whales and porpoises) and its ancestors acquired changes specifically in their brain through evolution. One of the reliable evidence to support this claim is by measuring the level of encephalization of a species or a taxonomic group. EQ is the measure of observed brain size relative to expected brain size derived from a regression of brain weight on body weight for a sample of species.EQ measures how much larger or smaller a species’ total brain size is from what is expected based on brain-body algometry (Greco et. al, 2003). Dolphins and humans share many common attributes. Both creatures are mammals wherein the young are born alive and not hatched from eggs. Air is important for both organisms since it sustains their breathing; the only difference is that dolphins must come up to the surface to breathe in its blowhole on the top of it s head and when it dives, the blowhole closes unlike humans that continuously breathe air in its respiratory system.Wang (1995) asserts that aside from being mammals, communication is one the major attributes keeping these two organisms at par with one another. Humans are capable of language and speeches denoting an idea or message for a particular person while dolphins create whistles and sounds signifying an action for which another dolphin can understand, it can signal danger for their kind hence they should be alert or a prey is near at hand thus, everybody must prepare; depending on the whistle produced.